The motive generally appears at the beginning of a piece of music.
It is considered the "germ" of the idea, and almost every important figure
in the work will have some relationship to it.
The motive is repeated constantly throughout the piece.
The monotony of simple repetition is overcome by variation. Variation
requires changing some of the less-important aspects and preserving some
of the more important ones, so that the character and shape of the motive
is preserved. Preservation of these essential features
produces coherence.
Phrases usually vary in length from three to six measures. Longer
and shorter ones can be found, but are rare. The most common
is phrase with a length of four measures. Composers create
variety in music by taking phrases and expanding or compressing them by
various methods.
The sentence
is constructed of two or more "balanced" phrases, also punctuated with cadences.
The most elementary musical form is binary, in which only two
elements are present. Evolving from binary is ternary form,
which has a middle section. In larger works, such as a sonata
or symphony, the elements are often intermingled and are distinguished
by their differences and similarities.
In musical works of some length, organization is accomplished by repetitions
of themes, repetitions of
rhythms,
tone colors,
and textures, and
by contrasts, balances, climaxes, cadences, and the like.
Sectional Form
The binary form (two-part), is generally constructed of two equal
parts. The second part may be thought of as an answer to the
first, very similar to the relationship between the first and second phrases
of a musical sentence.
The ternary form (three part) consists of a musical idea, followed
by a contrasting second idea, which is then followed by a re-statement
of the original idea.
Sometimes these forms are elaborated by the addition of an introduction
and/or a coda.
Due to compositional variations and developments of binary and ternary
forms, it sometimes becomes difficult to classify some works, as they may
seem to have qualities of both. To answer this, the term closed
is used to refer to the types that end with the first part, and the term
open
to refer to those types that don’t end with the first part.
Then further elaboration can describe whether there is a re-statement of
the first part by using the terms ‘2-part’ or ‘3-part’.
The ‘Open 2-Part Form’ - This had developed a fairly standard
pattern as follows:
1) First Part - Consists of an opening section in the tonic, then modulating
to a related key. It then progressed to a closing section in that
key. (Played twice).
2) Second Part - The same opening section as in the first part is used,
but this time in a related key. It then modulates back to the tonic, usually
ending with the same closing measures as the first part, but now in the
tonic. (Played twice).
The Aria Form, or Da Capo Form - Taken as a whole, this
structure is the crudest of the closed forms. It begins with the
first section, followed by the contrasting section, then the first section
is played again exactly as before. The composers did not bother to
write beyond the end of the digression, and would merely indicate ‘da capo’
(from the beginning).
The Minuet-and-Trio-Form - The simple 3-part closed form is expanded
in the minuet-and-trio. The following diagram indicates a basic
structure:
The "A" section represents a complete statement. The following
"B" section is a contrasting statement. The final section is a re-statement
of the "A" section, leaving out the repeats of the first section.
Note that each of the three sections is itself a complete form on a smaller
scale.
The Episodical Form - This is similar to the minuet-and-trio
form; the episode corresponds to the trio section, differing from the first
section in subject matter and key, and sometimes in pace and meter.
Due to the somewhat rigid structure of the minuet-and-trio, composers would
smooth the connecting parts of the different sections, introduce preparations
for the next section, eliminate unnecessary repeats, and add introductions
and codas to set the mood and round-off the entire work.
The Rondo Form - This consists of a complete statement given
at the beginning of a piece, which is then alternated (all or part) with
several contrasting sections. A simple rondo structure
could be indicated as: ABACA(DA…).
Free Sectional Form - In this structure, any arrangement of sections
that makes musical sense and a coherent whole is possible. For example,
ABB or ABCA or ABACABA.
Variation Form
Variation is a process where a musical entity (such as a phrase or sentence)
is subjected to eleborations during repetitions, while maintaining some
recognizable elements between the original and each of the variant forms.
Basso Ostinato (Ground Bass)
Basso Ostinato is a form where a short phrase is repeated over and over
in the bass part, while the upper parts proceed normally.
The bass part at times may be transferred to some other part, or it
may be shifted to other scale degrees.
The most effective results are obtained by interrupting the bass parts after a time,
the best near the middle of the movement, and introducing a contrasting section.
Resuming the basso ostinato figures, often in new forms, finishes the movement.
Passacaglia
Originally, the passacaglia was a dance in minor mode, and always in triple
time (3/4, 3/8, etc). The length was usually eight measures.
Numerous repetitions of this sentence provided the length of these works.
It became the custom to freely modify these repetitions, generally
by simple harmonic figuration, arpeggiation, and slight melodic embellishment.
The basis of the sentence was the chords, around which the variations were
constructed. This meant that the bass parts were very important,
making them similar to the basso-ostinato forms.
The Passacaglia usually begins with an unaccompanied statement of the
theme in the bass. This theme is the foundation for all subsequent
variations, and so must become well established to the listener.
With each variation, the goal is to present the theme in a new light.
Each repetition must add momentum to the work. The theme in
the bass may be moved to an upper or middle voice, concealing it as the
bottom of a figure or chordal accompaniment, played twice as fast, or played
twice as slowly.
To produce coherence, it became customary to group several variations
of a similar pattern together, creating smooth transitions from one type
of variation to the next.
Chaconne
The theme of a Chaconne consists primarily of the chord-successions in
which the thematic sentence is constructed. From these chord
progressions emerges a melody in the upper-most part.
Because the chord progression is maintained, the bass part seems to
resemble a basso-ostinato in construction. But in this case
the recurring bass is merely a consequence of the chord progressions.
The successive repetitions are little more than new figurations of the
chord progressions, using broken and embellished harmony as devices for
variation.
Theme and Variations
The principal theme (usually more lyric in quality) is clearly stated at
the beginning, and is then followed by a number of variations of that theme.
The variations could more properly called elaborations than mere duplications
of the theme.
Usually composers would stay close to the original theme towards the
beginning, and take more and more liberties as the piece develops.
Often the theme would be stated again at the end in its original form.
There following are easily distinguishable types of variation that may
be applied to a theme:
- melodic
- harmonic
- rhythmic
- contrapuntal
- combination of all the above
Every variation maintains the general proportions, structural relationships
of the parts, and main features of the theme, even if the character, tempo,
or number of measures change. This maintains a connection of
the variations with the theme throughout the piece.
Contrapuntal Form
Counterpoint is a kind of musical texture, the process of producing harmony
by the combination of melodies.
There are several processes used when composing contrapuntal music:
Imitation - A voice imitates what another voice does, as when
one sings a "round". The simplest type of imitation creates
the illusion of multi-voiced music, when in reality only one melody is
sounding. The imitation does not have to start on the same
note that the original voice began on. It could be a fourth above,
or a second below, and so on.
Canon - In this type, imitation is a device, and canon is more
of a form. The imitation is more elaborate, organized logically from
the beginning to the end of the piece of music.
Stretto - A kind of imitation in which the parts enter immediately
after one another so that there is overlap between the voices.
Inversion - Essentially, this consists of turning a melody upside
down, so that when the original moves up, the inversion moves down, and
vice versa. Not all melodic material makes sense being transformed
in this way, and it’s up to the composer to decide if the result is musically
desirable.
Augmentation, Diminution - Augmentation increases the time value
of the notes; diminution decreases the time value of the notes.
Retrograde (Cancrizans) - The melodic material is transformed
by reversing it. Like inversion, not all melodic material makes sense
being transformed in this way, and it’s up to the composer to decide if
the result is musically desirable.
Fugue
Most fugues are written in three or four voices. All of the
voices are not always present at any point in a musical work, as a well-written
piece of music requires breathing spaces and variation. In a four-voice
fugue, for example, one will only occasionally hear more than three voices
at a time.
There is always one voice that will predominate, no matter how many
voices are going on at once. The composer will draw the listener’s
attention to the subject of the fugue. The subject is stated
at the beginning of the fugue without accompaniment. Fugue
subjects are generally short, two or three measures long, and have a character
that is clear and well-defined.
Every fugue differs as to its presentation of voices, the length,
and handling of the inner detail, but some generalizations can be made.
All fugues start with an exposition, which starts with the unaccompanied
subject. The subject is then heard in each of the voices, one after
the other, giving the impression of a "subject-answer" approach:
Or, the order of the entrance of the voices could be as follows:
When the second voice enters, the first voice does not stop. Rather,
it adds a countersubject (CS), sounding simultaneously with the second
voice.
When the subject and countersubject are finished in a voice, it can
continue with a free voice, without restrictions.
The exposition of a fugue is really the only section that has a definite
structure to it. Usually, an episode will follow the exposition,
which gives the composer the opportunity for thematic development derived
from the subject or counter-subject, or even unrelated to them. Sometimes
the texture of some fugues is so closely tied in with its subject that
the episodes are merely linking or modulating passages.
The parts of a fugue can only be loosely outlined. A general format
could be as follows:
- Exposition
- (Reexposition)
- Episode 1
- Subject
- Episode 2
- Subject
- Episode 3
- Subject
- (etc…)
- Stretto
- Cadence
Sonata Form
The term Sonata Form is applied to two different things.
The first refers to an entire work that consists of three or four movements.
The second (called "sonata allegro" or "first-movement form") refers to
the internal structure of a movement, usually the first and sometimes the
last movements, of an entire sonata. The Sonata is less a definite
form or pattern, such as the minuet; rather, it’s more like the fugue,
a method of composing music, an approach to musical direction, proportion,
and texture.
The most obvious difference between movements (in the Sonata as a whole)
is in tempo. The three-movement type usually has fast-slow-fast;
the four-movement type usually has fast-slow-moderately fast-very fast.
The form of each of the movements is generally as follows:
- First Movement - Sonata-Allegro form
- Second Movement - Theme and Variations, or Rondo, or Three-Part
Sectional, or closely resembles the first movement Sonata form
- Third Movement - Usually a minuet or scherzo
- Fourth Movement (finale) - Almost always an Extended Rondo, or Sonata-Allegro
form
General Outline of Sonatina Form
- The Exposition
- Principal Theme - any part-form, and in almost any style and tempo
- Transition to Subordinate Theme
- Subordinate Theme - is placed in a related key, and is regarded more significantly
than as in a Rondo form, and may be more elaborate, striking, and longer
- Codetta - is optional, and sometimes there is more than one
- The exposition ends by continuing into the retransition, or ending on a
tonic cadence. The exposition is never repeated in the Sonatina-form.
The exposition should be perceived as a complete union of the two themes,
a finished whole.
- The Retransition
- The length and importance of the retransition depends on the circumstances
of the musical work. The primary goal of a transition is to approach the
key in which the following theme is to appear. Usually this
means the aim is the dominant of the upcoming key. This process
is generally divided into two parts. The first part consists of leading
the harmonies to the desired position, such as the desired dominant.
The second part consists of establishing this dominant by dwelling on it
for an appropriate length of time until the most effective moment arrives
to resolve it by continuing with the next theme.
- The Recapitulation
- First theme in tonic
- Transition modified to NOT lead away from tonic
- Second theme in tonic
- The Coda (optional)
- A musical passage ending a movement, after the recapitulation has completed.
The effect is as though concluding remarks on the subject matter have been
given.
General Outline of Sonata-Allegro Form
- The Exposition - the opening section, in which the principal themes are
presented for the first time.
- First section in tonic
- Transition to new key
- Second section in related key
- Codetta (one or more) - may be thematically significant, but shouldn’t
create the impression of a genuine theme. The contents may be new,
derived from the principal theme, or any other factor. Each codetta
is duplicated, often with much modification and extension.
- Repeat
- The Development - the evolution, manipulation, elaboration, or working
out of a theme by presenting it in various harmonic, melodic, or rhythmic
treatments. The form of a development is sectional.
- Digression into other keys, uses material from exposition or sometimes
new material
- Transition to tonic
- The Recapitulation - the return of the themes of the exposition. These
are not simply repeated, but instead it is a reinterpretation of the pattern
of the exposition.
- First section material in tonic
- Transition modified to NOT lead away from tonic
- Second section in tonic
- Repeat of Exposition and Development (very rare)
- The Coda (optional)
- A musical passage ending a movement, after the recapitulation has completed.
The addition of codas seems to disturb the logical symmetry of the sonata’s
form. However, in reality the coda establishes a different
type of musical balance. The effect is as though concluding
remarks on the subject matter have been given.
General Outline of Abridged Sonata Form
- Slow introduction, ending on the dominant
- Main Theme in the tonic
- Transition to dominant or related key
- Second Theme in relative major
- Closing sections (formalities)
- Transition to tonic (using unrelated subject matter)
- Recapitulation; the second theme is in tonic major key
- Coda
General Outline of Sonata-Rondo Form
- Main Theme in tonic
- Transition to related key
- Second Theme in related key
- Return of Main Theme in tonic
- Development/Episode in related key or parallel minor
- Return of Main Theme in tonic
- Transition modified to stay in the tonic
- Return of Second Theme in tonic
- Return of Main Theme in tonic
- Coda (usually added)
Free Forms
Any musical form that doesn’t fit into one of the standard structures is
technically considered a free form. However, every musical piece
must have some kind of form that makes sense. Every work will
have some kind of formal plan to produce coherence.
The Prelude
The prelude is a general term for a wide variety of musical pieces generally
written for the piano. Other terms that belong in this category
include impromptu, fantasy, aria, etude, elegy,
and capriccio.
Usually some type of pattern is established which guides the listener
from the beginning to the end of the work. This could
be a chord progression, or a motif that occurs throughout.
The Symphonic Poem (Tone Poem)
There are basically two types of descriptive, or program, music.
One of these is more literal, where the composer tries to realistically
recreate the sound of something, such as a bell or the sound an animal
makes. The other type is more poetic in nature, such as where the
composer attempts to communicate the emotional reaction felt during a particular
event. This allows the imagination of the listener more freedom
of interpretation.
Regardless of the descriptive nature of a musical work, it must always
be able to stand on its own in purely musical terms. It’s not
enough for story content to justify the structure or flow of the music.
